Persia
}| }/Lore}} The Sublime State of Persia, also known as the Qajar Empire or simply Persia, is a country in the Middle East. It borders the Caspian Sea to the north, Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, the Ottoman Empire to the west, the Persian Gulf to the south, the Dominion of India to the southeast, Afghanistan to the east, and Turkestan to the northeast. History The Constitutional Revolution The Sublime State of Persia entered the twentieth century in the middle of a financial crisis. Under Muzzafir al-Din Shah, who had ascended to the throne in 1896, government expenditures far outpaced revenues. To solve this problem, the Shah turned to European creditors. In 1901 he awarded Persia’s first concession to British businessman William D’Arcy for exclusive rights to the exploration, extraction, and sale of oil. In addition, the Shah had taken out two large loans from the Russian crown. Britain and Russia had fought for influence in Persia as part of the Great Game and both used such economic agreements as a means of furthering their control of the country. This combination of economic decline and foreign interference angered the populace against Mozaffar ad-Din Shah’s incompetent rule. Discontent proved strong enough to bring together three key segments of Persian society to favor radical change. The first were the bazaaris: the traditional merchant class, economically powerful and most directly affected by the financial crisis. The second, rather unexpectedly, was the ulema: the Shi’a religious leaders. Though traditionally conservative, the ulema had formed an alliance with the bazaaris during the Tobacco Protests of 1892, as each group opposed the growth of Western influence in Persia. Lastly came Persia’s small intellectual class, which despised the corrupt imperial court and desired modernization. Together these groups coalesced into the Nezhat-e-Mashrooteh: the Constitutional Movement. Events soon came to a head. In December of 1905 three prominent merchants were bastinadoed (caned on the soles of their feet) for charging exorbitant prices. In protest, the merchants of Tehran closed the bazaar. Discontent mounted over the following year, and violent reprisals by the Russia-backed Persian Cossack Brigade caused yet more outrage. Leaders of the ulama, speaking from the sanctuary of a mosque, demanded the adoption of a constitution and house of justice; Mozaffar ad-Din Shah, in response, ordered the mosque cleared. This violation of sanctuary backfired, turning popular opinion even further against the Shah, and the rebels simply fled to another mosque in the city’s outskirts. By June, bazaari leaders had likewise claimed sanctuary in the British Legation and mounted their own calls for a democratically-elected parliament. In August, the Shah agreed to the first elections, which were held that fall and won overwhelmingly by representatives of the bazaaris. Meeting in October, this First Majlis (parliament) immediately converted itself into a Constitutional Convention. The first draft of the Fundamental Law (as the constitution is known in Persia) was rejected by the Shah, who desired that the monarchy retain some power, including the ability to appoint and dismiss the prime minister. The majlis begrudgingly accepted most of these demands. On December 31st, 1906, the second draft of the Fundamental Law was signed into law by the ailing Mozaffar ad-Din Shah. Mass celebrations broke out in Tehran, and only five days later the Shah died of natural causes. The new ruler, Mohammed Ali Shah, was a determined absolutist and at once plotted the overthrow of the constitutionalists. A number of events helped him to that end. On August 31st, 1907 in St. Petersburg, the Anglo-Russian Convention was concluded, forming the basis of what would become the Triple Entente. As part of this new partnership, Britain and Russia agreed to divide Persia into two spheres of influence: the Russians in the north, the British in the south. Britain withdrew its support from the constitutionalists and joined Russia in backing the Shah. At the same time, attempts by the majlis to centralize the tax system upset local notables whose wealth was maintained by traditional tax farming. Proposals aimed at increasing secularism and women’s rights were denounced by conservative religious leaders. The Civil War and Aftermath Now with European support on his side, Mohammed Ali Shah moved to crush the constitutionalists. On June 23, 1908, the Shah declared Vladimir P. Liakhov, commander of the Persian Cossack Division, military governor of Tehran. His forces shelled the Parliament building, captured it, and executed several constitutionalist leaders. The Cossacks effectively took over the city, banning public meetings and closing down newspapers, in what became known as the ‘Minor Tyranny’. However, most of the majlis deputies were able to flee to the provinces where they organized resistance. The constitutionalist army drew from many sources: from the major cities, socialists from the Caucasus, the personal armies of feudal landlords, and most importantly the 12,000 Bakhtiyari tribesmen. Fighting raged throughout the country, but come July 1910 the disparate forces were converging on Tehran. Mohammed Ali Shah was forced to flee to the Russian Legation and agreed to abdicate the throne and go into exile; Succeeding to the throne was eleven-year-old Ahmad Shah under the regency of his uncle. The Grand Majlis came into power, punishing the former Shah’s loyalists and dramatically expanding the electorate. Thanks to their major role in the constitutionalist victory, the Bakhtiyari saw their influence increase dramatically. The Civil War had devastated the country, and the Second Majlis struggled to restore a sense of order. The former Shah Mohammed Ali attempted with Russian backing to reclaim the throne in July of 1910 and was defeated, but only just. Persia’s finances were still in a very bad state and tax reform remained out of reach. Besides extracting harsh concessions, the British and Russians also commonly made deals directly with local or tribal leaders, further undermining the idea of centralized government. When the majlis hired an American lawyer named Morgan Shuster as financial advisor and he began collecting taxes from Russian-connected officials, Russia delivered an ultimatum, demanding among other things the removal of Shuster from his post. The majlis refused, and in December of 1911 Russian forces occupied Persia’s northwest, slaughtering those who resisted. The ability of the majlis itself was hampered by infighting between the liberal Democrats Party and the conservative Moderate Socialists. With Russia poised to attack Tehran and the constitutionalists still intransigent, the Prince Regent dissolved the Second Majlis and acceded to the Russians’ demands. The Weltkrieg The young Ahmad Shah reached his majority in July of 1914, just as the Weltkrieg was beginning. Despite declaring its neutrality, Persia was quickly dragged into the conflict. The Russians had continued their occupation of the northwest, and in that region they clashed repeatedly with the Ottoman Turks. The British maintained a heavy presence in their sphere of influence along the Persian Gulf. The domestic situation was in turmoil. The Third Majlis had to flee the capital for Qom than Kermanshah before finally disbanding as most of the parliamentarians were forced to flee the country. Although Persia had a standing army on paper, it was never an effective force. The only military units of strength were the Persian Cossack Brigade, essentially a Russian proxy force, and the Swedish-trained gendarmerie. Most power was held by dozens of groups of tribal irregulars that openly defied the central government. The Jungle Movement in Gilan province under Mirza Kuchak Khan carried on a guerilla war in the northwest. All of these groups were at constant, shifting cross-purposes, aligning themselves with the Russians, British, Turks, and Germans as fighting went back and forth. This already unstable situation was further imperiled by the Russian Revolution and rise of the Bolsheviks in late 1917. Fighting from the Russian Civil War soon spilled into Persia’s north from the Caucasus as both Whites and Reds entered the country. With Russia split, British forces moved north to take control of Tehran. In 1918 Persia’s situation further deteriorated as drought and pandemic swept the country. By late 1919, with German successes on the Western Front and stalemate between the British and the Turks in Syria, Germany began committing more resources to the anti-British resistance in Persia. Their main contact was Nizam al-Saltana who presided over what remained of the majles-in-exile and gendarmerie. Meanwhile, the British concocted a treaty known as the Anglo-Persian Agreement, which would give them exclusive oil drilling rights and turn Persia into a de facto client state. When prime minister Vossug ed Dowleh submitted to the agreement it touched off a new wave of revolt. Kurdish tribal leader Simko Shikak took control of Urmia province and declared independence. Britain was forced to funnel more troops to Persia from the Raj. The following year, the government-in-exile allied with sympathetic elements within the Shah’s court and prevailed upon the Shia clergy to declare jihad against the British. In April, the British managed to defeat the Jangalis and force their leadership underground, but their overall hold of the country declined as more and more tribal leaders raised the banner of revolt and harassed their garrisons. In January of 1921, British forces withdrew from the north, allowing the majles to return from exile and take control of the national resistance. Over the next few months the British command decided to concentrate on the defense of Khuzestan province where the major oil fields were located. Though at first the Persian cause was enthusiastic, their offensive soon broke down due to internal disagreements and some tribal force went back over to the British. When the Persians finally launched their major offensive on Khuzestan in September they suffered a major defeat. Two months later the Peace with Honour ended the conflict: the Anglo-Persian Agreement was abrogated, but Britain retained its occupation of Khuzestan. Post-Weltkrieg With the situation in Persia stabilizing, the majlis was able to reenter the country and hold new parliamentary elections in March of 1922. At the same time, the socialist Edalat Party was founded by returning exile Heidar Khan Amo-Oghli. The Democrats Party won the elections, with Mostowfi ol-Mamalek tapped to be prime minister the following year. The situation in the country remained far from ideal, however. After a failed attempt to dislodge Simko Shikak from Urmia province, army chief Sardar Hamayoun decided upon a strategy of passive containment. The Democrats had an ambitious plan to recover from the war’s losses and modernize the country, but with an empty treasury little could be done. The political scene grew more complex as the major parties splintered and minor parties rose, especially after the Shah pardoned former Jangalis, strengthening the socialist movement. In early 1925, began to debate the possibility of requesting financial aid from Germany. The sudden collapse of the British Empire brought the situation in Khuzestan back in to focus. Despite calls by some to seize the province by force, Mostowfi ol-Mamalek chose instead to negotiate with the British to withdraw. Seeing few choices, the British withdrew to India in June; the province was triumphantly reoccupied and the majlis voted to nationalize Persia’s oil supplies. With the country’s most valuable export in domestic hands, the Germans agreed to extend financial aid. The 1926 elections saw the conservative Moderate Socialists Party and its allies capture the majlis; Prince Abdol-Hossein Farmanfarma was inaugurated as prime minister the next year. Concern had been mounting in conservative circles about the growing popularity of the Edalat Party and its ties to the foreign syndicalists, so in December it convinced the Shah to ban all socialist parties. In January 1927 an attempt by disgruntled socialists to assassinate the Shah failed by a slim margin and the ensuing crackdown forced them deeper underground, with most of the leadership fleeing the country. In the meantime, an agreement with the German Empire had been made, whereby Persia would sell oil at a reduced rate in exchange for German experts to help with the country’s development. The country’s finances were improving and modernization plans could finally go ahead. A road-building campaign was undertaken to improve communication and tax collection in the provinces. The majlis also approved an ambitious program from commander Reza Khan to modernize the army. New officers were sent to foreign military academies for training, foreign weapons were purchased, and a proper conscription system enacted. With these improvements under way, it finally seemed time to attack Simko Shikak. Troops began moving to the northwest in April 1928 and the offensive began in June with six divisions. The attack quickly bogged down due to tribal infighting and that the Ottoman Empire, which had been supplying the Kurdish rebels since the Weltkrieg, informed Simko Shikak of the Persian plan in advance. The fighting took many months due to the guerillas’ ability to hide in the mountainous terrain, but in December the last rebel stronghold was captured and Simko Shikak fled to Turkey. Reza Khan, who commanded the final breakthrough, became a national hero. As the next decade began, Persia’s ties to the German Empire grew stronger. New contracts were signed that gave German firms oversight of construction and financial institutions German investment entered the country. Some within the ulama protested these moves, as they argued that Persia was trading the old British and Russian domination for the German, but their message was generally ignored by the elite. The next election was won by the Democrats and their liberal allies, and in January 1931 Abdolhossein Teymourtash became the new prime minister. Modernization continued: a navy and air force were established, and the University of Tehran was founded in 1933. Attempts to reduce the power of local tribal leaders continued to be frustrated, however, and the Edalat Power continued to cultivate its influence, both in underground circles and with foreign backers in the Internationale. In May of 1935 the Shah, already facing poor health, was debilitated by a stroke, and his brother Mohammad Hasan Mirza was installed as regent. Politics Persia is a constitutional monarchy. Under the Constitution of 1906, also known as the Fundamental Laws, the Shah holds little actual power, and has been restricted further since then. Most power rests in the elected, unicameral parliament, known as the majlis. Most male citizens have the right to vote, with elections being held generally every four years. The two dominant political parties are the conservatie Moderate Socialists and the liberal Democrats, although they tend to govern in coalition with smaller parties. All socialist parties are banned. Conscription Law: Limited Conscription Economic Law: Export Focus Trade Law: Civilian Economy Head of Government: Abdolhossein Teymūrtāsh Foreign Minister: Abdol Hossein Sardari Economy Minister: Mostowfi ol-Mamalek Minister of the Interior: Mohammad Taqi-Khan Pessian Military Army Before the Constitutional Revolution, the Imperial Persian Army existed chiefly on paper. The fighting in the civil war was dominated by tribal militias, the Russian-funded Persian Cossack Brigade, and the new, Swedish-trained national gendarmerie. Only in 1927 did the Army begin reforming to bring itself into the modern world. Initial reforms were conducted by German officers and modern weapons and equipment were purchased from Austria-Hungary. In 1928 a group of officers was sent to the Preußische Kriegsakademie for training and conscription was enacted. In 1929 the Madresseh Saheb Mansabi, the national military academy, was founded. The commander-in-chief is Reza Khan Mirpanj. Navy The Imperial Persian Navy patrols the waters of the Persian gulf. It lacked modern warships until its purchase of four destroyers from Germany and the Netherlands in 1930. That same year Persian naval officers were sent to the Netherlands for training. Upon their return in 1932, they opened a naval academy in Ahvaz. Air Force The Imperial Persian Air Force was founded in 1932 by Mohammad Taghi Khan Pessian, a colonel in the gendarmerie who had served in the German air force during the Weltkrieg. The service uses German instructors and German-made aircraft, although it does have its own pilot training academy Foreign Relations Persia generally follows a policy of neutrality in international affairs, although it has found itself moving closer to Germany and the Mitteleuropa bloc, if only out of necessity. There has been some rapprochement with its old enemies Russia and the British regime in Delhi. Relations with the Ottomans to the west are stable but poor due to the latter’s support of the Simko Shikak rebellion. Economy Persia’s economy was traditionally dominated by agriculture and the commerce of the bazaar. Both of these sectors have been increasingly eclipsed by the importance of the petroleum industry. In 1913 the Anglo-Persian Oil Company built Persia’s first oil refinery at Abadan. Since nationalization, oil exploration has discovered reserves in the north of the country as well. Culture Persia is a highly multicultural country, being inhabited by many ethnic groups including Azeris, Kurds, Turkmen, Arabs, and Balochis. Even many “Persians” belong to a number of ethnic sub-groups such as the Gilaks, Mazandiranis, and Lurs, which break down even further into many separate tribes. For instance, the traditionally nomadic Bakhtiyari tribesmen played a critical role fighting in the Constitutional Revolution and chaos of the Weltkrieg. The continued autonomy of such tribes reflects the weakness of the central government and army. Category:Countries Category:Asian countries